PERTANIKA JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCES AND HUMANITIES

This study explores the use of code-switching and code-mixing in the practice of writing the grounds of judgement in the Malaysian Judicial System. As these grounds of judgement are official documents published for the public interest, a lack of lexical accuracies for the important terms and phrases may lead to poor linguistic representation of the legal text. Thus, thirty-two samples of grounds of judgement written in the national language from 2015 to 2021 were extracted from The Current Law Journal and analysed according to Appel and Muysken and Malik’s theories on code-switching and code-mixing in terms of the frequency used in the legal text. Findings revealed extensive use of intra-over inter-sentential code-switching in the form of insertion, alternation, and congruent lexicalisation of code-mixing. These were driven by the absence of specific legal terms in the national language, the lack of registral competence among the writers as well as the functions of the legal terms to serve the pragmatic contexts of the text, emphasise a point or highlight the semantic significance of the terms, and reflect the identity of the writers. The present study shows limited linguistic corpus on legal terms in the national language; therefore, language experts should intensify their efforts to expand the corpus and increase awareness of the terms through language courses for legal practitioners.

• Abu Bakar, Z. A. (2015, June 18). Bahasa Melayu di mahkamah [Malay language in court]. Utusan Malaysia, 20-21.

• Abu Bakar, Z. A. (2021, March 11). Martabat bahasa kita di mahkamah [Dignifying our language in court]. Sinar Harian. https://www.sinarharian.com.my/article/128315/KOLUMNIS/Martabat-bahasa-kita-di-mahkamah

• Appel, R., & Muysken, P. (2005). Language contact and bilingualism (Reprint ed.). Amsterdam University Press.

• Azlan, N. M. N. I., & Narasuman, S. (2013). The role of code-switching as a communicative tool in an ESL teacher education classroom. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 90, 458-467. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.07.115

• Bavelas, J., & Coates, L. (2001). Is it sex or assault? Erotic versus violent language in sexual assault trial judgments. Journal of Social Distress and the Homeless, 10, 29-40. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1009477518196

• Bokamba, E. G. (1989). Are there syntactic constraints on code-mixing? World Englishes, 8(3), 277-292. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-971x.1989.tb00669.x

• Charalambous, K. (2015). The judicial performativity of rape myths: A discourse analysis of rape court decisions. Gender, Law and Institution, 135-146.

• Chief Judge of Malaya’s Circular No. 3. (1990). In Dato’ Seri Anwar Ibrahim v Tun Dr Mahathir Mohamad. (2010). CLJLaw, 1, 1-14.

• Clyne, M. (1991). Community languages: The Australian experience. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511597084

• Connor, U. (1990). Linguistic/ rhetorical measures for international persuasive student writing. Research in the Teaching of English, 67-87.

• Federal Constitution art. 152(4).

• Hadei, M., Kumar, V. G., & Jie, K. S. (2016). Social factors for code-switching - a study of Malaysian-English bilingual speakers. International Journal of Language and Linguistics, 4(3), 122-127. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ijll.20160403.15

• Haynes, P. (2017). Victims’ lawyers in the courtroom: Opening and closing statements, questioning witnesses, challenging and presenting evidence. In G. Werle & M. Vormbaum (Eds.), Victim participation in international criminal justice (pp. 243-281). TMC Asser Press, The Hague. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-6265-177-7_8

• Hyatt, S. (2018). Legal language. University of Denver. https://www.law.du.edu/index.php/law-school-learning-aids/legal-language

• Hymes, D. (1974). Foundations in sociolinguistics. University of Philadelphia Press.

• Ibrahim, N., & Awang, A. H. (2011). With the greatest respect, I cannot agree: An investigation into the discourse of dissenting. 3L: The Southeast Asian Journal of English Language Studies, 17(Special issue), 46-60.

• Kachru, B. B. (1978). Toward structuring code-mixing: An Indian perspective. International Journal of the Sociology of Language, 1978(16), 27-46. https://doi.org/10.1515/ijsl.1978.16.27

• Khalil, S. M., & Firdaus, M. S. Z. M. S. (2018). Inter-sentential and intra-sentential code-switching in parliamentary debate. International Journal of Modern Languages and Applied Linguistics, 2(4), 29-35. https://doi.org/10.24191/ijmal.v2i4.7691

• Lake v Lake. (1955). 2 All ER 538.

• Lehman, I. M., & Sułkowski, Ł. (2020). Representation of voice in English essays of non-native students of business. Innovations in Education and Teaching International, 58(2),1-14. https://doi.org/10.1080/14703297.2020.1712221

• Li, D. (1998). The plight of the purist. In M. C. Pennington (Ed.), Language in Hong Kong at Century’s End (pp. 161-190). Hong Kong University Press.

• MacMartin, C., & Wood, L. A. (2005). Sexual motives and sentencing: Judicial discourse in cases of child sexual abuse. Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 24, 139-159. https://doi.org/10.1177/0261927X05275735

• Malik, L. (1994). Socio-linguistics: A study of code-switching. Anmol Publications.

• Maschler, Y. (1998). The transition to a mixed code. In P. Auer (Ed.), Code-switching in Conversation (pp. 125-149). Routledge.

• Milroy, L., & Muysken, P. (1995). Introduction: Code-switching and bilingualism research. In L. Milroy & P. Muysken (Eds.), One speaker two languages: Cross-disciplinary perspectives on code-switching (pp. 1-14). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/cbo9780511620867.001

• Morais, E. (1995). Code-switching in Malaysian business and its role in the management of conflict. Journal of Modern Languages, 9(1), 29-47. https://ejournal.um.edu.my/index.php/JML/article/view/3565

• Mujahid, S., Pillai, S., & Sinayah, M. (2020). Identity construction through code-switching practices at a University in Pakistan. GEMA Online® Journal of Language Studies, 20(4), 1-17. https://doi.org/10.17576/gema-2020-2004-01

• Muslim, N., Hassan, Z., & Samian, A.L. (2011). Bahasa Melayu dalam Perlembagaan Persekutuan: Kedudukan dan peranannya dalam konteks komunikasi perpaduan [Malay language in the Federal Constitution: Its position and role in the context of unity communication]. International Journal of the Malay World and Civilisation, 29(1), 103-120. http://journalarticle.ukm.my/3311/1/Bahasa_Melayu_dalam_perlembagaa_Persekutuan.pdf

• Muthusamy, P. (2010). Codeswitching in communication: A sociolinguistic study of Malaysian secondary school students. Pertanika Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities, 18(2), 407-415.

• Muysken, P. (1995). Code-switching and grammatical theory. In L. Milroy & P. Muysken (Eds.), One speaker two languages: Cross-disciplinary perspectives on code-switching (pp. 177-198). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/cbo9780511620867.009

• Muysken, P. (2000). Bilingual speech: A typology of code-mixing. Cambridge University Press.

• National Language Act 1963/67, s. 8.

• Ononye, C. F. (2018). Linguistic identity and the stylistics of nativisation in Adichie’s Purple Hibiscus. GEMA Online® Journal of Language Studies, 18(4), 81-94. https://doi.org/10.17576/gema-2018-1804-06

• Othman, N., Mohd Nor, N. F., Ibrahim, N. (2019). Linguistic representation of violence in judicial opinions in Malaysia. GEMA Online® Journal of Language Studies, 19(2), 82-98. https://doi.org/10.17576/gema-2019-1902-06

• Oxburgh, G., Myklebust, T., Grant, T., & Milne, R. (2015). Communication in investigative and legal contexts: Integrated approaches from forensic psychology, linguistics and law enforcement. Wiley-Blackwell. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118769133

• Poplack, S. (1980). Sometimes I’ll start a sentence in Spanish y termino en español: Toward a typology of code-switching. Linguistics, 18(7-8), 581-618. https://doi.org/10.1515/ling.1980.18.7-8.581

• Powell, R. (2020). Language choice in postcolonial law: Lessons from Malaysia’s bilingual legal system. Springer Nature Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-1173-8

• Razali, M., & Sulong, J. (2016). Amalan penulisan penghakiman dan pelaksanaannya di Mahkamah Syariah Malaysia [The practice of judgement writing and its application in Shairah Court of Malaysia]. Jurnal Syariah, 24(1), 25-58. https://doi.org/10.22452/js.vol24no1.2

• Romaine, S. (1989). Bilingualism. Basil Blackwell.

• Rozman, N. I. (2018). Kedudukan Bahasa Melayu dalam bidang perundangan semasa negara [The position of the Malay language in the current legal field of the country; Unpublished master’s thesis]. Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia.

• Silaban, S., & Marpaung, T. I. (2020). An analysis of code-mixing and code-switching used by Indonesia lawyers club on TV One. Journal of English Teaching as a Foreign Language, 6(3), 1-17.

• Stapa, S. H., & Khan, N. N. B. S. (2016). Functions of code-switching: A case study of a mixed Malay-Chinese family in the home domain. Pertanika Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities, 24(S), 181-194.

• Wibowo, A. I., Yuniasih, I., & Nelfianti, F. (2017). Analysis of types of code-switching and code-mixing by the sixth president of the Republic of Indonesia’s speech at the National of Independence Day. Progressive Journal of Linguistics, Literature, and Teaching, 12(2), 13-22.

• Abu Bakar, Z. A. (2015, June 18). Bahasa Melayu di mahkamah [Malay language in court]. Utusan Malaysia, 20-21.

• Abu Bakar, Z. A. (2021, March 11). Martabat bahasa kita di mahkamah [Dignifying our language in court]. Sinar Harian. https://www.sinarharian.com.my/article/128315/KOLUMNIS/Martabat-bahasa-kita-di-mahkamah

• Appel, R., & Muysken, P. (2005). Language contact and bilingualism (Reprint ed.). Amsterdam University Press.

• Azlan, N. M. N. I., & Narasuman, S. (2013). The role of code-switching as a communicative tool in an ESL teacher education classroom. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 90, 458-467. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.07.115

• Bavelas, J., & Coates, L. (2001). Is it sex or assault? Erotic versus violent language in sexual assault trial judgments. Journal of Social Distress and the Homeless, 10, 29-40. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1009477518196

• Bokamba, E. G. (1989). Are there syntactic constraints on code-mixing? World Englishes, 8(3), 277-292. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-971x.1989.tb00669.x

• Charalambous, K. (2015). The judicial performativity of rape myths: A discourse analysis of rape court decisions. Gender, Law and Institution, 135-146.

• Chief Judge of Malaya’s Circular No. 3. (1990). In Dato’ Seri Anwar Ibrahim v Tun Dr Mahathir Mohamad. (2010). CLJLaw, 1, 1-14.

• Clyne, M. (1991). Community languages: The Australian experience. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511597084

• Connor, U. (1990). Linguistic/ rhetorical measures for international persuasive student writing. Research in the Teaching of English, 67-87.

• Federal Constitution art. 152(4).

• Hadei, M., Kumar, V. G., & Jie, K. S. (2016). Social factors for code-switching - a study of Malaysian-English bilingual speakers. International Journal of Language and Linguistics, 4(3), 122-127. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ijll.20160403.15

• Haynes, P. (2017). Victims’ lawyers in the courtroom: Opening and closing statements, questioning witnesses, challenging and presenting evidence. In G. Werle & M. Vormbaum (Eds.), Victim participation in international criminal justice (pp. 243-281). TMC Asser Press, The Hague. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-6265-177-7_8

• Hyatt, S. (2018). Legal language. University of Denver. https://www.law.du.edu/index.php/law-school-learning-aids/legal-language

• Hymes, D. (1974). Foundations in sociolinguistics. University of Philadelphia Press.

• Ibrahim, N., & Awang, A. H. (2011). With the greatest respect, I cannot agree: An investigation into the discourse of dissenting. 3L: The Southeast Asian Journal of English Language Studies, 17(Special issue), 46-60.

• Kachru, B. B. (1978). Toward structuring code-mixing: An Indian perspective. International Journal of the Sociology of Language, 1978(16), 27-46. https://doi.org/10.1515/ijsl.1978.16.27

• Khalil, S. M., & Firdaus, M. S. Z. M. S. (2018). Inter-sentential and intra-sentential code-switching in parliamentary debate. International Journal of Modern Languages and Applied Linguistics, 2(4), 29-35. https://doi.org/10.24191/ijmal.v2i4.7691

• Lake v Lake. (1955). 2 All ER 538.

• Lehman, I. M., & Sułkowski, Ł. (2020). Representation of voice in English essays of non-native students of business. Innovations in Education and Teaching International, 58(2),1-14. https://doi.org/10.1080/14703297.2020.1712221

• Li, D. (1998). The plight of the purist. In M. C. Pennington (Ed.), Language in Hong Kong at Century’s End (pp. 161-190). Hong Kong University Press.

• MacMartin, C., & Wood, L. A. (2005). Sexual motives and sentencing: Judicial discourse in cases of child sexual abuse. Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 24, 139-159. https://doi.org/10.1177/0261927X05275735

• Malik, L. (1994). Socio-linguistics: A study of code-switching. Anmol Publications.

• Maschler, Y. (1998). The transition to a mixed code. In P. Auer (Ed.), Code-switching in Conversation (pp. 125-149). Routledge.

• Milroy, L., & Muysken, P. (1995). Introduction: Code-switching and bilingualism research. In L. Milroy & P. Muysken (Eds.), One speaker two languages: Cross-disciplinary perspectives on code-switching (pp. 1-14). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/cbo9780511620867.001

• Morais, E. (1995). Code-switching in Malaysian business and its role in the management of conflict. Journal of Modern Languages, 9(1), 29-47. https://ejournal.um.edu.my/index.php/JML/article/view/3565

• Mujahid, S., Pillai, S., & Sinayah, M. (2020). Identity construction through code-switching practices at a University in Pakistan. GEMA Online® Journal of Language Studies, 20(4), 1-17. https://doi.org/10.17576/gema-2020-2004-01

• Muslim, N., Hassan, Z., & Samian, A.L. (2011). Bahasa Melayu dalam Perlembagaan Persekutuan: Kedudukan dan peranannya dalam konteks komunikasi perpaduan [Malay language in the Federal Constitution: Its position and role in the context of unity communication]. International Journal of the Malay World and Civilisation, 29(1), 103-120. http://journalarticle.ukm.my/3311/1/Bahasa_Melayu_dalam_perlembagaa_Persekutuan.pdf

• Muthusamy, P. (2010). Codeswitching in communication: A sociolinguistic study of Malaysian secondary school students. Pertanika Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities, 18(2), 407-415.

• Muysken, P. (1995). Code-switching and grammatical theory. In L. Milroy & P. Muysken (Eds.), One speaker two languages: Cross-disciplinary perspectives on code-switching (pp. 177-198). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/cbo9780511620867.009

• Muysken, P. (2000). Bilingual speech: A typology of code-mixing. Cambridge University Press.

• National Language Act 1963/67, s. 8.

• Ononye, C. F. (2018). Linguistic identity and the stylistics of nativisation in Adichie’s Purple Hibiscus. GEMA Online® Journal of Language Studies, 18(4), 81-94. https://doi.org/10.17576/gema-2018-1804-06

• Othman, N., Mohd Nor, N. F., Ibrahim, N. (2019). Linguistic representation of violence in judicial opinions in Malaysia. GEMA Online® Journal of Language Studies, 19(2), 82-98. https://doi.org/10.17576/gema-2019-1902-06

• Oxburgh, G., Myklebust, T., Grant, T., & Milne, R. (2015). Communication in investigative and legal contexts: Integrated approaches from forensic psychology, linguistics and law enforcement. Wiley-Blackwell. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118769133

• Poplack, S. (1980). Sometimes I’ll start a sentence in Spanish y termino en español: Toward a typology of code-switching. Linguistics, 18(7-8), 581-618. https://doi.org/10.1515/ling.1980.18.7-8.581

• Powell, R. (2020). Language choice in postcolonial law: Lessons from Malaysia’s bilingual legal system. Springer Nature Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-1173-8

• Razali, M., & Sulong, J. (2016). Amalan penulisan penghakiman dan pelaksanaannya di Mahkamah Syariah Malaysia [The practice of judgement writing and its application in Shairah Court of Malaysia]. Jurnal Syariah, 24(1), 25-58. https://doi.org/10.22452/js.vol24no1.2

• Romaine, S. (1989). Bilingualism. Basil Blackwell.

• Rozman, N. I. (2018). Kedudukan Bahasa Melayu dalam bidang perundangan semasa negara [The position of the Malay language in the current legal field of the country; Unpublished master’s thesis]. Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia.

• Silaban, S., & Marpaung, T. I. (2020). An analysis of code-mixing and code-switching used by Indonesia lawyers club on TV One. Journal of English Teaching as a Foreign Language, 6(3), 1-17.

• Stapa, S. H., & Khan, N. N. B. S. (2016). Functions of code-switching: A case study of a mixed Malay-Chinese family in the home domain. Pertanika Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities, 24(S), 181-194.

• Wibowo, A. I., Yuniasih, I., & Nelfianti, F. (2017). Analysis of types of code-switching and code-mixing by the sixth president of the Republic of Indonesia’s speech at the National of Independence Day. Progressive Journal of Linguistics, Literature, and Teaching, 12(2), 13-22.